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Viruses & Vaccines: How Do Vaccines Work?: Crash Course Biology 39
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Duration: | 12:49 |
Uploaded: | 2024-04-16 |
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MLA Full: | "Viruses & Vaccines: How Do Vaccines Work?: Crash Course Biology 39." YouTube, uploaded by CrashCourse, 16 April 2024, www.youtube.com/watch?v=xSbMX0MFJCY. |
MLA Inline: | (CrashCourse, 2024) |
APA Full: | CrashCourse. (2024, April 16). Viruses & Vaccines: How Do Vaccines Work?: Crash Course Biology 39 [Video]. YouTube. https://youtube.com/watch?v=xSbMX0MFJCY |
APA Inline: | (CrashCourse, 2024) |
Chicago Full: |
CrashCourse, "Viruses & Vaccines: How Do Vaccines Work?: Crash Course Biology 39.", April 16, 2024, YouTube, 12:49, https://youtube.com/watch?v=xSbMX0MFJCY. |
From the flu to COVID-19, viruses are a major threat in our everyday lives. In today’s episode of Crash Course Biology, we’ll learn why viruses are like genes in a box, and how they invade and spread between cells. We’ll also discover how vaccines and medicines help our bodies fight back.
Introduction: Discovering Viruses 00:00
What We Have in Common With Viruses 1:24
Evolutionary Theories of Viruses 2:49
Hosts & Infection 3:55
Retroviruses 6:49
Vaccines 8:11
Dr. Quarraisha Abdool Karim & Antivirals 9:41
Review & Credits 11:39
This series was produced in collaboration with HHMI BioInteractive, committed to empowering educators and inspiring students with engaging, accessible, and quality classroom resources. Visit https://BioInteractive.org/CrashCourse for more information.
Are you an educator looking for what NGSS Standards are covered in this episode? Check out our Educator Standards Database for Biology here: https://www.thecrashcourse.com/biologystandards
Check out our Biology playlist here: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL8dPuuaLjXtPW_ofbxdHNciuLoTRLPMgB
Watch this series in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel here: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLkcbA0DkuFjWQZzjwF6w_gUrE_5_d3vd3
Sources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1GLDtAXE6ekg4Chk2qN3TYbNt0pJbyaHqTqRd6QY8pd4/edit?usp=sharing
***
Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse
Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:
Leah H., David Fanska, Andrew Woods, DL Singfield, Ken Davidian, Stephen Akuffo, Toni Miles, Steve Segreto, Kyle & Katherine Callahan, Laurel Stevens, Burt Humburg, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Alan Bridgeman, Breanna Bosso, Matt Curls, Jennifer Killen, Jon Allen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, team dorsey, Bernardo Garza, Trevin Beattie, Eric Koslow, Indija-ka Siriwardena, Jason Rostoker, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, Barrett & Laura Nuzum, Les Aker, William McGraw, Vaso, ClareG, Rizwan Kassim, Constance Urist, Alex Hackman, Pineapples of Solidarity, Katie Dean, Stephen McCandless, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks
__
Want to find Crash Course elsewhere on the internet?
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/thecrashcourse/
Facebook - http://www.facebook.com/YouTubeCrashCourse
Twitter - http://www.twitter.com/TheCrashCourse
CC Kids: http://www.youtube.com/crashcoursekids
Introduction: Discovering Viruses 00:00
What We Have in Common With Viruses 1:24
Evolutionary Theories of Viruses 2:49
Hosts & Infection 3:55
Retroviruses 6:49
Vaccines 8:11
Dr. Quarraisha Abdool Karim & Antivirals 9:41
Review & Credits 11:39
This series was produced in collaboration with HHMI BioInteractive, committed to empowering educators and inspiring students with engaging, accessible, and quality classroom resources. Visit https://BioInteractive.org/CrashCourse for more information.
Are you an educator looking for what NGSS Standards are covered in this episode? Check out our Educator Standards Database for Biology here: https://www.thecrashcourse.com/biologystandards
Check out our Biology playlist here: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL8dPuuaLjXtPW_ofbxdHNciuLoTRLPMgB
Watch this series in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel here: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLkcbA0DkuFjWQZzjwF6w_gUrE_5_d3vd3
Sources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1GLDtAXE6ekg4Chk2qN3TYbNt0pJbyaHqTqRd6QY8pd4/edit?usp=sharing
***
Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse
Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:
Leah H., David Fanska, Andrew Woods, DL Singfield, Ken Davidian, Stephen Akuffo, Toni Miles, Steve Segreto, Kyle & Katherine Callahan, Laurel Stevens, Burt Humburg, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Alan Bridgeman, Breanna Bosso, Matt Curls, Jennifer Killen, Jon Allen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, team dorsey, Bernardo Garza, Trevin Beattie, Eric Koslow, Indija-ka Siriwardena, Jason Rostoker, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, Barrett & Laura Nuzum, Les Aker, William McGraw, Vaso, ClareG, Rizwan Kassim, Constance Urist, Alex Hackman, Pineapples of Solidarity, Katie Dean, Stephen McCandless, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks
__
Want to find Crash Course elsewhere on the internet?
Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/thecrashcourse/
Facebook - http://www.facebook.com/YouTubeCrashCourse
Twitter - http://www.twitter.com/TheCrashCourse
CC Kids: http://www.youtube.com/crashcoursekids
Here’s an age-old question: Where do infectious diseases come from? Until about 130 years ago, we thought they only came from microscopic organisms, like bacteria. So, when a disease started rotting tobacco plants across Europe, scientists and farmers went looking for the culprit. And they found something… a bit unexpected.
Russian botanist Dmitri Ivanovsky took some sap from an infected plant and passed it through a filter to strain out the bacteria. Except, even without bacteria, the sap from the infected plants still spread the disease. Turns out, it was spreading through what was then perceived to be a “contagious living fluid,” not a bacterium at all. Dutch botanist Martinus Beijerinck dubbed it a “virus,” from the Latin word for poison.
In fact, while they’re not quite alive, viruses have been growing and evolving alongside life for billions of years. Hi, I’m Dr. Sammy, your friendly neighborhood entomologist, and this is Crash Course Biology. I’m sorry guys, someone sneezed on the theme music yesterday and I think it’s not feeling well…Oh, wait, you’re gonna still do it?
Oh, sweet! Okay… [THEME MUSIC] While most scientists wouldn’t classify viruses as alive, they do have a lot in common with living things. Like living things, they come in diverse shapes and sizes. There are viruses that look like uncooked spaghetti, spiky dog toys, or spacecrafts. But, for the most part, they’re smaller and much less complicated than even the simplest bacteria. For example, the influenza virus that causes the seasonal flu can be 100 to 1,000 times smaller than a human cell. Even the most jumbo-sized viruses are minuscule—barely visible with a light microscope.
And they’re simpler, too. The bacterium E. coli has more than 4000 genes. The influenza virus only has eight! And, yeah: viruses have genes, just like us living things. But they exist as an infectious bunch of nucleic acids — with single or double strands of DNA or RNA — wrapped in a protein jacket called a capsid, and sometimes an outer membrane called a viral envelope. “Capsid'' comes from the Latin word for “box.” So, you can think of a virus as “genes in a box.” Viruses also evolve over time – which is why your body can develop an immune response to a virus, but then get infected by a new variation that evades those defenses. And if you’re wondering how all this is possible for something that isn’t “alive,” well, so are scientists. We don’t really know yet, but we have some pretty good ideas.
One, is that viruses arose from genetic material gone rogue, which gained the ability to escape from cells and move between them, hopping from cell to cell. Genetic material has to leave the nucleus to inform the protein-making process, so it’s not that huge a leap that it could leave the cell altogether. Another is that viruses evolved from living organisms that went minimalist — reducing and simplifying themselves and losing genetic information along the way, until they were more life-adjacent than actual life. It’s also possible that viruses existed before cells, as very simple RNA molecules that could replicate on their own. And only evolved to infect cells after the first living things showed up. If you want a refresher on the currently accepted criteria for what counts as “alive,” you can find that back in episode 1. But it’s important to remember that the concepts of “living” and “nonliving” are just that, concepts. We try to fit the complicated world into neat little bins because it serves to make complexity easier to manage. But the natural world isn’t always so easily defined.
The exact evolutionary relationship between life and viruses isn’t yet clear. But the important thing is, viruses can’t reproduce, grow, process energy, or do anything on their own that resembles living. It’s only when they bump into, and infect, the right cell, called a host, that viruses can function. Each different type of virus can only infect a certain range of hosts. Like, take bacteriophages, for example, a type of virus that can infect only bacteria. Or the virus that causes measles, which infects only primates. Of course, not all viruses are limited to closely-related species. We know that SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing COVID-19, has invaded cells in humans, hamsters, white-tailed deer, and more. When viruses can infect people and other animals, we consider them zoonotic diseases.
When a virus bumps into a cell it’s capable of infecting, it can enter and take over, taking control of the molecular machinery of life to make copies of the virus so it can spread to more cells. This is what we mean by “viral”: One cell gets taken over, then another. If a bunch of cells end up controlled by the virus, it can spread faster than a video of a cat in a t-shirt playing the keyboard. And while there’s more than one way a virus can hijack a molecular copy-machine, many of the viruses you may have heard of before—like polio, measles, mumps, and the common cold—take the same basic approach. Let’s head over to the Thought Bubble… Meet the typical RNA virus: floating around in its spiked envelope. On its own, it can’t do much other than drift about. But if it comes across a compatible host cell, it’s suddenly very active. That spike latches onto the cell’s receptor, bringing the envelope close to the cell membrane so the two can fuse together. The virus then barges into the cell, making itself at home.
It sheds its capsid — the inner jacket — exposing a single strand of RNA, with clear instructions: replicate. A special viral enzyme commands the cell’s energy and machinery to make copies of the RNA strand. Some of those copies then act as messenger RNA, and the cell translates them into viral proteins. Those proteins then wrap around the other RNA copies, becoming capsids for whole new viral particles. Before those new viruses split off from the cell and make their exit, they shroud themselves in the cell membrane, fashioning it into their own spiked envelopes. And with that, they drift away—brand-new viruses, waiting to bump into other host cells. Thanks, Thought Bubble! This cellular takeover is how most RNA viruses replicate and spread. And by the time that replication is finished, the virus has often interrupted normal cellular functions, harming, or even killing the host cell. …sooooo yeah I’m just…I’m just gonna say it, viruses are kinda rude right?
And while all of that is normal for a typical RNA virus, there’s another type of virus, called a retrovirus, that takes the process even further. After the retrovirus enters the host, its RNA transforms into DNA, a process that’s helped along by a special enzyme called reverse transcriptase. That viral DNA then integrates into the host cell’s DNA — becoming one with it. In fact, one-tenth of the human genome carries fragments of viral DNA from ancient infections embedded in our ancestors’ reproductive cells and passed down to us. They don’t hurt us like active viruses, in fact, some have even evolved into helpful genes. But HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is a serious example of a retrovirus. It spreads from person to person through direct contact with certain infected body fluids: like blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breastmilk. It infects the host’s T cells, a key part of the immune system. After entering the host cell’s DNA, the HIV DNA can sit silently for sometimes more than ten years before transcribing back into RNA and making new viral particles that infect other cells. HIV particles kill off each host cell as they spread, and since those cells are important in fighting off infections, they eventually weaken the whole body’s immune system. The good news is, we’ve come a long way since Beijerinck first identified his “contagious living fluid” as a virus.
These days, we can fight back against viral invaders with two pretty great defenders: vaccines and antivirals. Vaccines are central to our resistance against viral invaders. If a virus is an invader, and our immune systems are an army, then a vaccine is boot camp: A form of training that lets cells practice fighting the virus, without the threat of a real invasion. You see, viruses can travel virtually undetected, and until our cells meet one, they don’t know how to recognize them. Which puts our cells at a disadvantage. So, vaccines let the body’s immune system learn first, introducing it to bits of the virus—like just its protein jacket—or a very weak or “dead” version of the virus. That version isn’t able to spread or replicate — but it makes for great boxing practice. More recently, vaccines have been successful at battling COVID-19 by using messenger RNA. An mRNA vaccine carries a slice of instructions for making a virus’s spiked protein. Remember, this is like the key that the virus uses to unlock the cell. When the vaccine is injected, our cells follow the instructions and make the spiked protein — which is harmless by itself, but great at helping our immune system recognize and learn to fight the actual virus. And, while there is no vaccine to prevent HIV yet, we do have another defender ready to step up to help combat this deadly virus. Let’s learn a little more in the Theater of Life… In 1990, HIV infections were on the rise in South Africa. And epidemiologist Dr.
Quarraisha Abdool Karim wanted to understand how they were spreading. So, she visited a number of rural South African communities. There, she learned that women didn’t have a method of protection from the virus that they alone could control, regardless of their sexual partners’ behavior. Dr. Abdool Karim knew of gels called microbicides that women could apply before and after sex to protect themselves against other infections. So, what if a gel could do the same thing…but with HIV? For nearly two decades, she pursued this idea, testing two different microbicides in search of a preventive medicine. Neither of those first drugs stopped HIV. But in 2010, she and her team finished testing a third microbicide, tenofovir, in a trial with South African women that lasted three years.
When used regularly by women before and after sex, the tenofovir gel cut rates of HIV infection in half. That gave them a way of protecting themselves that they could control. By going to communities first, Dr. Abdool Karim leveraged science in a powerful way: first figuring out where help was needed, then finding the right tool for the job. Medicines, like the one Dr. Abdool Karim developed, are called antivirals. They help battle viral infections once they’ve begun, but instead of killing the virus, they capitalize on its number-one weakness.
Without a host cell, a virus can’t replicate. So, some antivirals essentially barricade cells to keep the virus from getting in. Other antivirals work within the cell, throwing a wrench into the machinery — like, interrupting important enzymes, so viral copies never make it out. Or amping up the body’s whole immune system—releasing proteins that turn the “attack mode” dial on high, and putting other cells on guard for invaders. Together, vaccines and antivirals represent some big steps in the way science combats viruses. They may just be genes in a box, but, it’s clear that viruses are entwined with life. They’re old, ancient things — and yet, new ones are emerging all the time, posing new and unique threats, as we’ve seen with COVID-19. But the more we learn about them, the more fine-tuned our defenses get.
And the more we can protect ourselves and each other. Next time, we’re going to look at the ways biologists, and other scientists, use computers to better understand the world around us. I’ll see ya then! Peace!
This series was produced in collaboration with HHMI BioInteractive. If you’re an educator, visit BioInteractive.org/Crashcourse for classroom resources and professional development related to the topics covered in this course. Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Biology which was filmed at our studio in Indianapolis, Indiana, and was made with the help of all these nice people. If you want to help keep Crash Course free for everyone, forever, you can join our community on Patreon.
Russian botanist Dmitri Ivanovsky took some sap from an infected plant and passed it through a filter to strain out the bacteria. Except, even without bacteria, the sap from the infected plants still spread the disease. Turns out, it was spreading through what was then perceived to be a “contagious living fluid,” not a bacterium at all. Dutch botanist Martinus Beijerinck dubbed it a “virus,” from the Latin word for poison.
In fact, while they’re not quite alive, viruses have been growing and evolving alongside life for billions of years. Hi, I’m Dr. Sammy, your friendly neighborhood entomologist, and this is Crash Course Biology. I’m sorry guys, someone sneezed on the theme music yesterday and I think it’s not feeling well…Oh, wait, you’re gonna still do it?
Oh, sweet! Okay… [THEME MUSIC] While most scientists wouldn’t classify viruses as alive, they do have a lot in common with living things. Like living things, they come in diverse shapes and sizes. There are viruses that look like uncooked spaghetti, spiky dog toys, or spacecrafts. But, for the most part, they’re smaller and much less complicated than even the simplest bacteria. For example, the influenza virus that causes the seasonal flu can be 100 to 1,000 times smaller than a human cell. Even the most jumbo-sized viruses are minuscule—barely visible with a light microscope.
And they’re simpler, too. The bacterium E. coli has more than 4000 genes. The influenza virus only has eight! And, yeah: viruses have genes, just like us living things. But they exist as an infectious bunch of nucleic acids — with single or double strands of DNA or RNA — wrapped in a protein jacket called a capsid, and sometimes an outer membrane called a viral envelope. “Capsid'' comes from the Latin word for “box.” So, you can think of a virus as “genes in a box.” Viruses also evolve over time – which is why your body can develop an immune response to a virus, but then get infected by a new variation that evades those defenses. And if you’re wondering how all this is possible for something that isn’t “alive,” well, so are scientists. We don’t really know yet, but we have some pretty good ideas.
One, is that viruses arose from genetic material gone rogue, which gained the ability to escape from cells and move between them, hopping from cell to cell. Genetic material has to leave the nucleus to inform the protein-making process, so it’s not that huge a leap that it could leave the cell altogether. Another is that viruses evolved from living organisms that went minimalist — reducing and simplifying themselves and losing genetic information along the way, until they were more life-adjacent than actual life. It’s also possible that viruses existed before cells, as very simple RNA molecules that could replicate on their own. And only evolved to infect cells after the first living things showed up. If you want a refresher on the currently accepted criteria for what counts as “alive,” you can find that back in episode 1. But it’s important to remember that the concepts of “living” and “nonliving” are just that, concepts. We try to fit the complicated world into neat little bins because it serves to make complexity easier to manage. But the natural world isn’t always so easily defined.
The exact evolutionary relationship between life and viruses isn’t yet clear. But the important thing is, viruses can’t reproduce, grow, process energy, or do anything on their own that resembles living. It’s only when they bump into, and infect, the right cell, called a host, that viruses can function. Each different type of virus can only infect a certain range of hosts. Like, take bacteriophages, for example, a type of virus that can infect only bacteria. Or the virus that causes measles, which infects only primates. Of course, not all viruses are limited to closely-related species. We know that SARS-CoV-2, the virus causing COVID-19, has invaded cells in humans, hamsters, white-tailed deer, and more. When viruses can infect people and other animals, we consider them zoonotic diseases.
When a virus bumps into a cell it’s capable of infecting, it can enter and take over, taking control of the molecular machinery of life to make copies of the virus so it can spread to more cells. This is what we mean by “viral”: One cell gets taken over, then another. If a bunch of cells end up controlled by the virus, it can spread faster than a video of a cat in a t-shirt playing the keyboard. And while there’s more than one way a virus can hijack a molecular copy-machine, many of the viruses you may have heard of before—like polio, measles, mumps, and the common cold—take the same basic approach. Let’s head over to the Thought Bubble… Meet the typical RNA virus: floating around in its spiked envelope. On its own, it can’t do much other than drift about. But if it comes across a compatible host cell, it’s suddenly very active. That spike latches onto the cell’s receptor, bringing the envelope close to the cell membrane so the two can fuse together. The virus then barges into the cell, making itself at home.
It sheds its capsid — the inner jacket — exposing a single strand of RNA, with clear instructions: replicate. A special viral enzyme commands the cell’s energy and machinery to make copies of the RNA strand. Some of those copies then act as messenger RNA, and the cell translates them into viral proteins. Those proteins then wrap around the other RNA copies, becoming capsids for whole new viral particles. Before those new viruses split off from the cell and make their exit, they shroud themselves in the cell membrane, fashioning it into their own spiked envelopes. And with that, they drift away—brand-new viruses, waiting to bump into other host cells. Thanks, Thought Bubble! This cellular takeover is how most RNA viruses replicate and spread. And by the time that replication is finished, the virus has often interrupted normal cellular functions, harming, or even killing the host cell. …sooooo yeah I’m just…I’m just gonna say it, viruses are kinda rude right?
And while all of that is normal for a typical RNA virus, there’s another type of virus, called a retrovirus, that takes the process even further. After the retrovirus enters the host, its RNA transforms into DNA, a process that’s helped along by a special enzyme called reverse transcriptase. That viral DNA then integrates into the host cell’s DNA — becoming one with it. In fact, one-tenth of the human genome carries fragments of viral DNA from ancient infections embedded in our ancestors’ reproductive cells and passed down to us. They don’t hurt us like active viruses, in fact, some have even evolved into helpful genes. But HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is a serious example of a retrovirus. It spreads from person to person through direct contact with certain infected body fluids: like blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breastmilk. It infects the host’s T cells, a key part of the immune system. After entering the host cell’s DNA, the HIV DNA can sit silently for sometimes more than ten years before transcribing back into RNA and making new viral particles that infect other cells. HIV particles kill off each host cell as they spread, and since those cells are important in fighting off infections, they eventually weaken the whole body’s immune system. The good news is, we’ve come a long way since Beijerinck first identified his “contagious living fluid” as a virus.
These days, we can fight back against viral invaders with two pretty great defenders: vaccines and antivirals. Vaccines are central to our resistance against viral invaders. If a virus is an invader, and our immune systems are an army, then a vaccine is boot camp: A form of training that lets cells practice fighting the virus, without the threat of a real invasion. You see, viruses can travel virtually undetected, and until our cells meet one, they don’t know how to recognize them. Which puts our cells at a disadvantage. So, vaccines let the body’s immune system learn first, introducing it to bits of the virus—like just its protein jacket—or a very weak or “dead” version of the virus. That version isn’t able to spread or replicate — but it makes for great boxing practice. More recently, vaccines have been successful at battling COVID-19 by using messenger RNA. An mRNA vaccine carries a slice of instructions for making a virus’s spiked protein. Remember, this is like the key that the virus uses to unlock the cell. When the vaccine is injected, our cells follow the instructions and make the spiked protein — which is harmless by itself, but great at helping our immune system recognize and learn to fight the actual virus. And, while there is no vaccine to prevent HIV yet, we do have another defender ready to step up to help combat this deadly virus. Let’s learn a little more in the Theater of Life… In 1990, HIV infections were on the rise in South Africa. And epidemiologist Dr.
Quarraisha Abdool Karim wanted to understand how they were spreading. So, she visited a number of rural South African communities. There, she learned that women didn’t have a method of protection from the virus that they alone could control, regardless of their sexual partners’ behavior. Dr. Abdool Karim knew of gels called microbicides that women could apply before and after sex to protect themselves against other infections. So, what if a gel could do the same thing…but with HIV? For nearly two decades, she pursued this idea, testing two different microbicides in search of a preventive medicine. Neither of those first drugs stopped HIV. But in 2010, she and her team finished testing a third microbicide, tenofovir, in a trial with South African women that lasted three years.
When used regularly by women before and after sex, the tenofovir gel cut rates of HIV infection in half. That gave them a way of protecting themselves that they could control. By going to communities first, Dr. Abdool Karim leveraged science in a powerful way: first figuring out where help was needed, then finding the right tool for the job. Medicines, like the one Dr. Abdool Karim developed, are called antivirals. They help battle viral infections once they’ve begun, but instead of killing the virus, they capitalize on its number-one weakness.
Without a host cell, a virus can’t replicate. So, some antivirals essentially barricade cells to keep the virus from getting in. Other antivirals work within the cell, throwing a wrench into the machinery — like, interrupting important enzymes, so viral copies never make it out. Or amping up the body’s whole immune system—releasing proteins that turn the “attack mode” dial on high, and putting other cells on guard for invaders. Together, vaccines and antivirals represent some big steps in the way science combats viruses. They may just be genes in a box, but, it’s clear that viruses are entwined with life. They’re old, ancient things — and yet, new ones are emerging all the time, posing new and unique threats, as we’ve seen with COVID-19. But the more we learn about them, the more fine-tuned our defenses get.
And the more we can protect ourselves and each other. Next time, we’re going to look at the ways biologists, and other scientists, use computers to better understand the world around us. I’ll see ya then! Peace!
This series was produced in collaboration with HHMI BioInteractive. If you’re an educator, visit BioInteractive.org/Crashcourse for classroom resources and professional development related to the topics covered in this course. Thanks for watching this episode of Crash Course Biology which was filmed at our studio in Indianapolis, Indiana, and was made with the help of all these nice people. If you want to help keep Crash Course free for everyone, forever, you can join our community on Patreon.